Nuclear waste management involves the safe handling, storage, and disposal of radioactive materials produced by nuclear power generation, medical procedures, and scientific research. These materials pose serious environmental and health risks if not properly managed, especially high-level waste (HLW), which remains hazardous for thousands of years. Nuclear waste is classified into three main categories: low-level waste (LLW), such as contaminated tools and clothing; intermediate-level waste (ILW), which contains higher levels of radioactivity; and HLW, including spent nuclear fuel, which is intensely radioactive and thermally hot.

Different types of facilities are designed to accommodate these varying waste levels. LLW and ILW are commonly stored in surface or near-surface facilities, often near nuclear reactors or treatment plants. These sites provide shielding and containment for short- to medium-lived isotopes. HLW requires far more robust solutions. Interim storage facilities house this waste temporarily in heavily shielded casks, while heat and radiation diminish. The most advanced solution for permanent disposal is the geological disposal facility (GDF), a deep underground structure designed to isolate HLW from the biosphere for millennia.

Globally, several countries are taking the lead. Finland’s Onkalo facility is the world’s first operational GDF. Sweden and France are progressing similar projects, while Canada has selected a site for its own. The UK continues site investigations, and countries like Japan, Russia, and China are developing long-term strategies. Meanwhile, the United States still relies largely on above-ground storage while searching for a politically viable permanent solution.